Compendium Review Unit 3 pt 2

Table of Contents

1. Muscle cell structure
2. Calcium release in the muscle
3. Muscle contraction
4. Joints
5. Structure of a bone
6. Calcium regulation in the bones

1. Muscle cell structure

A single muscle cell has hundreds of myofibrils. Myofibrils are threads that run along the axis of the fibre. They all have actin acting and myosin. Actin facilitates cellular movement, it is also known as microfilaments or thin filaments. Myosin is a protein responsible for converting ATP energy to mechanically usable energy. The cells of muscles are also quite large and can be seen without a microscope.

a. Parts of a muscle cells

Muscle cells have a few main parts. Sarcolemma is the cell membrane that can create action potential to allow the muscle to do its job: move. Then there’s the sarcoplasmic reticulum and endoplasmic reticulum both regulate calcium ions. And finally the T-tubules get into the cell to contact the sacroplasmic reticulum.



2. Calcium release in the muscle

Calcium is a released in the muscle through a chain of actions. First the motor neuron sends a single to the axonal terminus, and then the synapse send the message to the muscle cell. The Sarcolemma or muscle cell membrane goes through action potential and on to the T-tubule system. There is a change in the voltage that creates the release of the calcium ions in the muscle cell. The presence of the calcium makes the cross-bridges go through a change in shape.

3. Muscle contraction

Muscle contraction requires ATP. There are three different ways to get the ATP. The first is Anaerobic in which phosphate is created and added to creatine to make ATP. The second is when glycogen and lactate are fermented to make ATP. And third Aerobic, glycogen or fatty acids are combined with water and oxygen to make the ATP. The energy is used to make the muscle cells move closer together to contract the muscle. Neurons are what tell the muscles to move based on stimulus from the outside world or through sensory input. Muscles contract when they slide filaments. The following website http://www.mpimf-heidelberg.mpg.de/~holmes/muscle/muscle1.html, has a really great explanation. “The contraction of voluntary muscles in all animals takes place by the mutual sliding of two sets of interdigitating filaments: thick (containing the protein myosin) and thin (containing the protein actin) organized in sarcomeres each a few microns long which give muscle its cross striated appearance in the microscope (Fig 1). The relative sliding of thick and thin filaments is brought about by ‘cross bridges’, parts of the myosin molecules which sticks out from the myosin filaments and interact cyclically with the thin filaments, transporting them by a kind of rowing action. During the process ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is hydrolyzed to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), the hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy.”

4. Joints

Joints connect different bones together; the synovial joints are what allow movement throughout the body because they are lubricated and can facilitate movement. The movement is created when muscles tug on the joint and we move.

5. Structure of a bone

Bones are actually living organisms in the body that have nerves blood supply and cells. There is connective tissue inside the bone that surrounds the blood vessels. Cells as they are in all parts of the body and the driving force of the bone creating bone tissue, breaking down old bone tissue.



a. Fetal bone formation

When bones form in the fetus they start with cartilage. Cartilage is thought of as a type of bone but is technically a type of very dense connective tissue. Once the cartilage has formed bony tissue fills around the blood vessels. The new bone tissue is formed inside of the cartilage at the growth plate that lies between the diaphylis and epiphysis and the two ends of the bone. Then the final bone starts to form, this happens in three stages.

b. Medullary cavity

The Medullary cavity is located in the diaphysis and is a hollow area shaped like a tube. This is where the bone marrow is and where the blood cells of the bone are created.



c. Bone tissue what's so special about bone tissue?

Bone tissue is what supports our body without it and our muscles we’d be a big lump on the floor. Bones also protect the organs from the outside world. And bones are kind enough to store most of our calcium and phosphate.

6. Calcium regulation in the bones

Bones store calcium and are essential to the health of the bone. Calcium is also needed for cell metabolism and muscle cells. When bone loses calcium they become weaker. It is the role of the thyroid and parathyroid to regulate calcium in the body. When bones don’t get enough calcium osteoporosis is manifested. Osteoporosis is a disease that effects more women than men and levels are high in the elderly. The weakness of the bones can lead to soreness and easy fractures and breaking.


Sources:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=cooper.section.1790, http://www.cytochemistry.net/Cell-biology/actin_filaments_intro.htm, http://www.mpimf-heidelberg.mpg.de/~holmes/muscle/muscle1.html, http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cartilage.htm, http://www.technion.ac.il/~mdcourse/274203/lect5.html, Frolich PowerPoint for cells and Human Biology 10th edition, Human Biology 10th

Compendium Review Unit 3 pt 1

Table of Contents

1. What does nervous system does
2. Diffusion and Action Potentials in Neurons
3. Myelin Sheath
4. Neurons
5. Synapse
6. Reflex arc (simple somatic function) and autonomic function
7. How Sensation happens
8. Sensory fields in the brain
9. Body Sensory
10. Special senses in the head


1. What does the nervous system does

The nervous system controls the intake of sensory information, processes the information and creates motor outputs, the response to the intake. All neurons in the nervous system send signals the same way. That is a very simple and basic explanation of the nervous system, it is way complicated.



2. Diffusion and Action Potential in Neurons

Diffusion is when move on transport proteins in the cell membrane. Action potential is the rapid transmission of messages that takes place in the body through the nervous system. This allows us to analyze the information of out environment quickly. It is done through diffusion in the cell membrane.



3. Myelin Sheath

The myelin sheath is one nerve that consists of hundreds or thousand of axons. It is a fat based nerve that helps to insolate neurons and to help with action potential. The myelin is located in the cells that surround the axon that are called Schwann cells, this allows action potential to go to nodes where the cell membrane is exposed. The saltatory or jumping of action potential, it saves energy and makes it more efficient.



4. Neurons

Neurons are the cells that transmit action potential and are the main cell in the nervous system. Neurons receive the information that they transmit from sensory cells or other neurons that already have the information. Neurons can be super long. The axon of the cell is what carries the message. One of the things I found most interesting about neurons is that they don’t procreate, go through mitosis or die. There are two main types of neurons; sensory neurons that give information to the organs and tissue, and motor neurons that send information to every muscle.





5. Synapse

Synapse occurs when the action potential has been carried out to the end. A Neurotransmitter is secreted to stimulate connecting neurons. According to http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Synapse there are 5 different kinds of synapse, they are as follows: “1. Chemical synapse: one in which an action potential causes the exocytosis of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic cell, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to ligand gated ion channels on the post synaptic cell. These ion channels then affect the resting potential of the post synaptic cell. 2. Electrical synapse: one in which electrical connection is made directly through the cytoplasm, via gap junctions. 3. Rectifying synapse: one in which action potentials can only pass across the synapse in one direction (all chemical and some electrical synapses). 4. Excitatory synapse: one in which the firing of the presynaptic cell increases the probability of firing of the postsynaptic cell. 5. Inhibitory synapse: one in which the firing of the presynaptic cell reduces the probability of firing of the postsynaptic cell.



6. Reflex arc (simple somatic function) and autonomic function

The Reflex arc is one of the coolest things I’ve learned about. The reflex arc is an arc of electrical current that jumps from one neuron to another to activate involuntary action. The axon forms a new synapse, which transmits the impulse to the motor neuron to send the single.



7. How Sensation happens

Sensations occur when our bodies sense something through conscious somatic sensory perception. There are special sensory receptors whose job it is to process the information that our senses are picking up. The receptor sells tell the sensory neurons what is going on through action potential. And finally the brain and the spinal cord figure out the details, of the what where and how much.

8. Sensory fields in the brain

This is done through large areas in the brain that organize information spatially. This is done for vision and touch through the skin.

9. Body Sensory

The body senses touch, pain, temperature and pressure through the skin. Our body knows the position it is in through proprioception. The body senses what is going on around it and information is sent through the neurons to the brain and spinal cord for interpretation.

10. Special senses in the head

Many of the senses that help us perceive the world and our place in it are located in the head. They are taste, smell, vision, hearing and equilibrium, which is a sense that is in the inner ear.


Works Cited:

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0097305.html, http://www.merthyrlearns.com/mod/resource/view.php?id=5276, Sources: Sources: Frolich PowerPoint for cells and Human Biology 10th edition, Human Biology 10th

Unit 3 Ethical Issues essay

It was great to see this issue taken into account. I recently learned that the Prescott Unified School district only has Physical Education 2 to 3 days a week. I was outraged. So this was a particularly good time for me to this assignment.

It was interesting to see the first article, Essay on Obesity and the Environment Modifying the Environment to Reverse Obesity, actually take into account the fact that our daily lives don’t include physical activity like they used to. And because our lives are taken up with work that doesn’t include physical activity many have a hard time making time to get exercise. For me growing up, I never had a hard time getting exercise. But I was home schooled and lived in the forest, I was a total tomboy and spent my afternoons running around and climbing trees. And then I got into dance. I think that children and adults would benefit greatly from finding an activity that is fun for them. But then I quit dance and started college and it all went down hill from there. I stopped exercising. I lived a half hour drive out of town so there was no walking, and I just went home and watched TV with my parents. Getting rid of television when my boyfriend and I moved in was the best decision we have ever made. I feel that people shouldn’t have cable or satellite. I’m not saying that we shouldn’t have any TV. We could have it and some DVD’s for when we get sick and lie around, or for watching something educational but for the most part TV should be given up.

I love the ides in some of the other articles where they’ve made trails a very viable mode of transportation. I think that it would be hard to convince people to give up their comfy cars to walk on trails. But if the trails make it easier to get where you’re going then it might work. It’s all about giving people an incentive, they’re not going to do it just because they’ll get exercise or pollute less. Trails for walking and bicycles are something that should be much more encouraged in cities. But I will say that I don’t want roads to totally disappear. I did a lot of walking this summer, but now that it is cold I don’t want to walk. I would not trade a half hour walk to work at 5:30 in the morning for a 10-minute drive.

Then there’s the issue of how to get people to eat food that’s good for them. The psychology of eating has always fascinated me. I have always eaten healthy. I was raised that way and just never learned another way to exist. So I have a really hard time trying to understand why people don’t eat healthy food, so I am happy that this was brought up because I am nutrition major and I need to learn how to understand this. I agree with the first article that advertising is a huge part of promoting an unhealthy lifestyle. Children especially, being bombarded with these ads. My uncle, who’s a little radical, one time at a parade in town screamed at the Ronald McDonald going by on a float “You’re killing our children.” And that is true to some extent. I think for children this comes down partially to bad parenting. Parents give into their children too easily instead of saying “no” and sticking to it.

Eating well is a habit. I’m not sure what the best way to make the habit is, but I know that once you do it is hard to do anything else. If I eat out a couple times in a week I can feel it. It’s lower quality food that isn’t as healthy and my body let’s me know it.

I’m glad to see that there are so many people out their trying to fix the epidemic of obesity. I figure things can only get so bad, and once they do they’ll start to turn around.

Unit 3: Leech Lab

QUESTIONS ABOUT LEECH NEUROPHYSIOLOGY LAB:

1. What is the electrode measuring?

The electrode is measuring the difference of neuron membranes.

2. Why use leeches in neurophysiology experiments?

Because the neurons are easy to reach without having to disrupt the neuron.

3. What is the difference between a sensory and a motor neuron?

A sensory neuron sends messages to the brain and spinal word, while the motor neuron sends messages to the muscles and organs.

4. Do you think a leech experiences pain? What is pain?

Absolutely. I think that anything with nerves experiences pain.

5. What were the two most interesting things about doing this lab?

Seeing the structure of a leach was interesting because we don’t have leeches her in the west. And getting to walk through doing the experiment virtually to see how it works without has to actually do it.

6. Anything you found confusing or didn't like about the lab?

I did not like dissecting the leech. It was gross and sad, but at least it wasn’t real.

Unit 2 Lab: Metabolic Rates

Unit 2 Lab

For my lob I measured my metabolic rates during a brick walk, 30 sec run and 20 jumping jacks, in addition to, of course, my baseline. I found this a very challenging lab because of having to schedule all my activities. It is interesting to see how the body and the circuitry system have to kick in when activity level goes up.

My hypothesis is that my metabolic rates would go up depending on the activity. I thought they would go up a little with a brick walk, a little more with jumping jacks, and finally more with a 30 second run.

Here's me walking


Here's me running


Here's me doing jumping jacks, it is hard to tell what I'm doing :-)


Here's me getting my blood pressure tested


Baseline Repetition 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Mean
Pulse 82 89 84 85
Resp 18 20 22 20
Systolic 107 104 105 105
Diastolic 66 67 62 65
____________________________________________________________________________________

Brick Walk Repetition 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Mean
Pulse 90 104 94 100
Resp 31 30 36 32
Systolic 108 104 106 106
Diastolic 63 62 67 64
_____________________________________________________________________________________

30 sec Run Repetition 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Mean
Pulse 88 92 91 90
Resp 29 27 34 30
Systolic 109 110 113 111
Diastolic 59 57 62 59
_____________________________________________________________________________________

20 jumping Jacks Repetition 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Mean
Pulse 89 86 90 88
Resp 29 27 34 30
Systolic 105 106 101 104
Diastolic 53 56 58 56



My hypothesis was partially correct. The levels didn’t have the as drastic of jumps as I thought they might, and my pulse surprised me; but I am a very fast walker. Over all my metabolic rates did go up, just not in the way I expected them to.

I don’t think there was a problem with my technique, I think I just didn’t really know what was going to happen and that is why I didn’t get exactly the results I was looking for.

It was interesting to actually see what different types of activity due to the body. Measuring my metabolic rates was a good way to look into that. I am in the middle of a 5-k running program, and I really haven’t ran much in my life so it was interesting to see what effect running has on my heart.

Unit 2: Self Evaluation

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE

1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I felt I did a good job on the nutrition lab; it was very interesting, I felt I had a good understanding and submitted a good lab. Second, I felt I did a good job ranting in the ethical issues essay and it was a lot of fun. Thirdly, I feel like I did a good job explaining gene expression in my compendium review on genetics.

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

I wish I would have gotten better pictures for my main lab. And I feel that I should have been more detailed in my compendium review for nutrition, I really wasn’t sure to approach, that I don’t know why.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?

I think I could get as high as a B. I feel I improved a lot since the last unit, but I still could have used more understanding to better complete my assignments.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit?

Again getting started earlier, that is always my main problem, great I know that I just need to fix it.

REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")

1. At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

During the ethical issues essay, I got to write about something I am very passionate.

2. At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

During the main lab. I have a really hard time with those hands on real world lab, so I’m not enjoying myself and then frustrating. It is something I know I need to find a way to enjoy.

3. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?

The instructor got back to my emails quickly so I could get back to my assignments and gets them done properly.

4. What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

It is interesting to me that the lecture and the textbook stray somewhat from each other, although it is more beneficial, it’s not what I’m used to.

5. What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.)

I actually was really surprised about the HIV and AID’s statistics I didn’t know too much before.

Compendium Review unit 2 part 2 nutrition

Table of Contents

1. Glucose and Diffusion (diabetes)
2. Nutrition a cell needs
3. Clycolysis and Kreb’s Cycle
4. Digestion
5. Nutrition and Diet
6. What humans should eat?
7. Nutrition and choice
8. Food production


1. Glucose and Diffusion (diabetes)

Glucose provides energy for the cells. It is burned with oxygen in cell respiration to create that energy.

a. How cells obtain and use glucose

Cells can get glucose from the gut when food is digested, some of which is glucose. Glucose also comes from the liver, which makes back up glucose. Cells create their energy from glucose.

b. Why can’t we just eat sugar?

Because there are so many other essential nutrients required to run our bodies properly. We need protein to build muscle, and amino acids to build protein, fats that also provide energy and so many other things to function properly.

2. Nutrition a cell needs

Cells need all categories of nutrients to properly function; we should get carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

3. Glycolysis and Kreb’s Cycle

Glycolysis is the how cells make ATP. It also breaks down glucose to help in the making of ATP. According to http://cellular-respiration.tripod.com/id2.html, “Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol or cytoplasm in the cell. The energy from glycolysis powers all the systems that maintain homeostasis.” Well that makes it seem much more simple doesn’t it. The Kreb’s cycle produces carbon dioxide giving cells the energy to make proteins from amino acids and to make DNA. It takes the energy from the ATP that the glycolysis produced, or it can use proteins and fats to get the energy to produce the proteins.

4. Digestion

Digestion is hugely important to for our body to get nutrients. Not only do you get a tummy ach and gross bal movements if you don’t digest your food correctly your body also doesn’t get the nutrients out of the food you’re eating. Our body breaks down the food in not just your stomach but also mainly the intestines and transfers those nutrients into the rest of the body. There are many fluids in your our digestive system that are enzymes that break down the food.

5. Nutrition and Diet

We get the majority of our nutrients and fuel through food. There are many food categories that we need to eat to get the variety of nutrients that we need. Many people don’t get optimal nutrition, and many either don’t care or don’t know how to get the proper nutrients. The diet that we chose to follow will dictate our health and overall function including mental capacity.

6. What humans should eat?

We need to get the basics including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, amino acids, mineral and vitamins. Humans should be eating balanced meals, they should look, really look at what they’re eating and understand what they are eating and how it is affecting their bodies. The carbohydrates we eat should be whole grains that metabolize slower, as well as unrefined sugars. I could go on and on but I won’t.


source: http://www.simpson.k12.ky.us/UserFiles/ChildFoodPyramidSm.gif

7. Nutrition and choice

Humans get to choose the food that we eat. And even choose things that aren’t good for us. Most us do know what is good for us, but we have choice. If something tastes good to us we eat it, often anyhow. This isn’t the only reason we eat things that are not healthful. There are also food companies and pharmaceutical companies to blame. Food companies want to produce processed poor quality food they can cell to us. And this in turn makes the pharmaceutical companies rich because we have poor quality health because of the poor quality unhealthful food we’re eating. Take type two diabetes, a self-caused disease from eating crap. Well often the person doesn’t know that they’re doing that, but what about that wonderful organization the FDA who is suppose to protect us? I could go on and on.

8. Food production

I like that we got into food production in this unit of the course. It is true that most us in our day-to-day life don’t think about where our food comes from. Of course this involves the farming of food like I discussed in my ethical issues essay. But another thing I like to due is thinking about processed foods being made in a factory. It isn’t very appetizing, even with the healthiest of foods. I have taken to making my own ketchup, yogurt, sandwich spreads and many other processed things. I make as much as I can myself and wish that more people would because then you are responsible for what is in your food. But American do really need to appreciate the full process of all food production.

Sources: Sources: Frolich PowerPoint for cells and Human Biology 10th edition, Human Biology 10th, http://www.diabeteshome.ca/where-does-glucose.php, http://www.essortment.com/all/whatisglycolys_rcot.htm, http://cellular-respiration.tripod.com/id2.html, http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/