Compendium Review Unit 4 pt 2

Table of contents

1. Deep Time Evolutionary History
2. Human Evolution
3. Natural Selection
4. Physical Landscape
5. Biological Landscape--what is domestication?


1. Deep Time Evolutionary History

Deep time is a way of expressing the amount of time that is not understandable for the humane mind. It is necessary to become comfortable with the idea of deep time for studying evolution.

a. Early Earth

The earth and its history have been studied widely. Scientists have uncovered the chemical makeup of the earth from existing ancient rocks, which give them an idea of how the earth has changed over time. The Stanly Miller experiments looked at what the young earth’s atmosphere was like, how energy was applied and studied organic molecules.

b. Evolution is a fact

Many creationists argue that evolution is not real. However, scientists argue this with facts that have been uncovered. There are many fossil records that show the evolution of species and the earth. Not to mention that many similarities exist between species that are thought to be related and be a break off of another species.

2. Human Evolution

The evolution of humans is probably the most studied part of evolution; we are after all quite self-absorbed. Humans are Homo sapiens, this is characterized by these facts, we can interbreed, there is little anatomical or biochemical difference between populations, and DNA and protean show a single common ancestor. The humans of today’s world rule the planet. This is great for us but has led to many adverse affects on the environment and other species. We are responsible for the pollution and we have been responsible for the extinction of many plants and animals; not to mention general disruption of their existence.

a. Humans are primates

Humans are most closely related to monkeys and apes, which are also primates; we share many characteristics with other primates.





3. Natural Selection

The idea of Natural Selection is the brainchild of Darwin. It says that the strongest survive creating an ever-stronger race of the species. It is similar to how farmers produce ever-healthier crops, or at least try to.

4. Physical Landscape

Humans have had quite an impact of the physical landscape of the earth, and more than just all the construction that has been done to reshape the land. We affect the water cycle, by consuming huge amounts of water and using it for agriculture and even for amusement. We have also disrupted the carbon cycle, because we harvest fossil fuels. Humans have put carbon gages into the atmosphere which many claim is responsible for climate change.

5. Biological Landscape--what is domestication?

We have created our own landscape. We have an ecosystem just like any other species, however we have over complicated how this works because of our sheer size and of course of particular living habits. We consume resources at a much larger rate than any other species. We have also changed other ecosystems in many ways and included other species in our ecosystem through domestication. Early on we simply domestication things that interacted well with humans and we’re easier to breed. Now we’ve branched out, we use domestication for research in laboratories; we have brought animals indoors to live with us.

Unit 4 Compendium Review: Reproduction

Table of Contents

1. Human Life Cycle
2. Meiosis again--eggs and sperm
3. Male reproductive organs
4. Female reproductive organs
5. Birth Control
6. STD’s
7. Infections
8. Fetal Development and Birth


1. Human Life Cycle

The human life cycle starts with meiosis goes through fertilization, fetal development, birth, childhood and adolescence, Adulthood, Aging and finally death. Each stage has particular biological significance to the body; it’s operation and appearance.



2. Meiosis, eggs and sperm

Meiosis is when the chromosomes from each organism are chosen for the new organism.



a. Meiosis in the male organs

In the male this happens in the tissue of the testes, which are full of seminiferous tubules, which is where sperm is created. The stem cells are always undergoing meiosis in the walls of the tubules. The sperm is collected in the epididymis. According to http://www.andrologyaustralia.org/pageContent.asp?pageCode=MALEREPROD#MALEREPRODEPI, “The epididymis is a highly coiled tube (duct) that lies at the back of the testes and connects the seminiferous tubules in the testis to another single tube called the vas deferens. The epididymis is about 5 meters long if stretched out. All sperm must pass through the epididymis when they leave the testis. When released from the testis, the sperm spend two to 10 days passing through the epididymis. During this journey, the sperm mature and gain the ability to move (swim or become motile).” The sperm that doesn’t get used goes back into the testicular tissue.

b. Meiosis in the female organs

Meiosis in females occurs in the ovaries. There are two phases, the first happens in the fetal ovary. The first phase isn’t one we often think about, it occurs when the one egg matures and breaks free from the wall of the ovary to be taken up into the fallopian tube, which happens during the menstrual cycle during ovulation. Phase two happens when the egg is fertilized.


3. Male reproductive organs

The sperm is made in the testes and carried by the vas deferens. The vas deferens is the helpful tubes that carry the sperm into the urethra to prepare for ejaculation. The semen is made by the seminal glands that are located at the base of the penis and in the prostate.



a. Vasectomy

In a vasectomy a small part of the vas deferens is cut out so that the sperm can’t get to the urethra for ejaculation. Everything else stays the same, as before in relation to the production of the sperm, now all the sperm is unused and absorbed into the testicular fluid.





4. Female reproductive organs

The clitoris, is really the female penis, it is the same tissue that would have grown into a penis had the organism been a male. The bladder is located behind the pubis. The vagina is actually a muscular tube whose opening is located just behind the urethra. The Labia majorum is the tissue that surrounds and protects the vaginal opening, clitoris and urethra. The cervix is the part that the sperm has to get around to get through the fallopian tubes the to the eggs. The Oviducts are kind enough to get the eggs from the ovaries to the uterus. The ovaries are where the first parts of meiosis take place and are of course were eggs are produced.




5. Birth Control

There are many different types of birth control with different advantages and disadvantages. The most common are those that use hormones to trick the female body into thinking it is pregnant already and there for does not allow for an additional pregnancy. There hormone choices are things like the pill, the skin pact, the Depo-Provera shot, and the ring. Then there are condoms, which are available for male and female application. The male option is the most commonly used of those two options. Similar to condoms is the diaphragm and the sponge; these both use a barrier and spermicide like condoms. The ides is if the blockage doesn’t work the spermaside will kill, or mane the sperm to the point it can’t do it’s job. Spermaside can cause irritation to both the male and the female and increase the occurrence of bladder infection in females because the chemical in spermaside also kills the good bacteria in the vagina that protects the female from bladder infections. Then there are inserts like the IUD, or Intrauterine devices, which are inserted into the vagina. According to http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/contraceptivecoil.htm, “They sit in your womb and prevent you from getting pregnant. They do this in three main ways: they prevent your partner’s sperm from getting through your womb and into your tubes, they alter the secretions (mucus) in your cervix, creating a further barrier for sperm, they affect your womb lining – making it less likely to ‘accept’ an egg.” There are also the permanent options of a vasectomy for the man, which I previously discussed, and for women a tubal ligation or essure. A tubal ligation is when the fallopian tube is tied, or sometimes-clipped shut so the sperm cannot get to the egg. Essure works in a similar way, a coil is inserted into the fallopian tube through the vagina, inside of the coil is a tissue growth stimulator, after 3 to 6 months tissue grows and blocks the fallopian tube.

6. STD’s

Sexually transmitted diseases are a rising problem. Viral STD’s can’t be treated with antibiotics, but some can be treated by a smaller selection of antiviral. These include; HIV, genital warts, genital herpes and hepatitis. There are also bacterial STD’s that can be treated with antibiotics; those include Chlamydia, Gonorrhea, and Syphilis.

a. Hepatitis

Hepatitis is an infection of the liver. There are six types, A, B, C, D, E and G. As far as STD’s go type B is the most common and is transmitted through sexual contact or through contaminated blood. It can lead to the liver failing. There is a vaccine that can be injected for protection against types A and B.

b. STD prevention

There are some things that can help prevent STD infection. Obviously is you don’t have sex it won’t be a problem. Reducing the number of partners and staying in long term relationships reduce ones changes of contraction. Partners need to be honest with each other about STD’s. And using condoms can help to prevent the spread of STD’s.

7. Infections

The reproductive track can be prone to several different types of infections. First Bacterial vaginosis or BV happens when there’s a disruption of the natural floras in the vagina and causes overgrowth of a certain bacteria. BV is responsible for 50 percent of vaginitis (infection of the vagina) in American women. Trichomoniasis is caused by protozoan (single celled eukaryotic organisms that like to be around moisture and cause many diseases). This can lead to vaginitis and causes a thick discharge, bad smell and itching. Candidiasis is a condition where there is too much yeast in the vagina. It can be caused by hormones in birth control and antibiotics. Common symptoms are red skin, inflammation, itching and white thick discharge.

8. Fetal Development and Birth

a. Fertilization and Implantation

In this first stage about a week into development mitosis is created smaller cells.
This is also called ectopic pregnancy because the fertilized egg implants.

b. Early embryonic development

The plan for the body is ready to go. The fetus is still very small, no organs have formed yet but the placenta is developing.

c. From fetus to adult

The body becomes an adult structure. The adult body has the following attributes from early on in the fetal stages: guts, brain and spinal cord, muscles and bones.

d. The Changes in the female body during pregnancy

Pregnancy is very disruptive to the female body it can cause the bladder and rectum to squeeze tightly. The stomach gets pushed on and becomes smaller requiring more frequent small meals instead of large ones. Also the immune system will respond differently and change the appetite of the mother so poisons don’t make there way to the fetus. The posture has to change because of the increased weight and mass the pregnancy creates. And of course the breasts get larger to allow for milk production.

e. Birth

Birthing can be approached many different ways. In America the hospital birth is common, but in other regions home births are more common. I was born at home; it was just dad and I my mom.

Sources: http://www.contexo.info/DNA_Basics/Meiosis.htm, http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-dictionary/Seminiferous_tubules/, http://daphne.palomar.edu/psycsoc125/HSClass/anatomy_ts/pages/m_anat.html http://www.andrologyaustralia.org/pageContent.asp?pageCode=MALEREPROD#MALEREPRODEPI, http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/sex_relationships/facts/contraceptivecoil.htm, Frolich PowerPoint for cells and Human Biology 10th edition, Human Biology 10th

Unit 4 pt 2 Lab: HUMAN POPULATION DEMOGRAPHICS

Afghanistan


France






1. What was your high fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

Afghanistan with a very high rate of 6.4 children.

2. What was your low fertility rate country and what was its fertility rate?

France with a 1.8 fertility rate.

3. The initial demographic "shape" of your high fertility rate country should have been a pyramid, with high population in young age groups. Explain why high fertility rate results in a high percentage of young people in the population. How does this affect future population growth?

Because new humans are produced at such a high rate there are many more of the younger generations than older ones. The way it affects the future population depends on the behavior of the younger generations. If they produce at the same high rate as there parents that would create a future ratio that would be more balanced from young to old, if their reproduction drops significantly it would result in a large population that are older in the future.

4. Your low fertility rate country might have had a more oval-shaped curve with high population in middle age groups. This is especially exaggerated if the fertility rate is below 2.00. Explain why low fertility rate leads to lots of middle-aged people.

Because those who are at the age to produce children aren’t, so in the ten to twenty years they become the larger population because they didn’t create enough to replace them.

5. Write ten adjectives or descriptive phrases for what you might expect life, people's attitudes, conditions on the streets, etc. will be like in each of those situations. Imagine a situation with lots of middle-aged and older people in the population and write ten quick "brain-storm" descriptors for you think it would be like (Prescott, Arizona?). Then do the same for a situation with lots of children in the population.

For Afghanistan:

Crowded
Family-Oriented
Poor
Few resources
Lot’s of diapers
Stay at home mom
Helpless
Proud
Protective
Fulfilled

For France:

Anxious
Searching
Loving
Blessed
Appreciation
Simple
Safe
Organized
Career-minded
Only child

Unit 4 Ethical Issues Essay

Human population and its impact on the world and its resources has been an issue I have been aware of for quite some time. This gave me a new opportunity to learn much more than I had before about the subject and the many dimensions of it.

I found the argument that two children do much more than simply replace the parents. It seems to me than many reproduce out of habit, please don’t get me wrong I am not condemning having children I have just known many people who later in life look back and don’t really remember a conscious decision to have children. That being said it is amazing what one couple having two offspring can create? There is no guarantee that those children will grow up to have the same moderate number of children. Also there is the trend that shows that those whom have lower number of children use more resources. However I don’t think that the consumption of resources is that black and white, so-called “civilized” nations simply have grown accustomed to a very different type of lifestyle. Still it is important to consider the impact of the children we bring into the world, and for those that are brought into the world to raise them to be stewards of the earth. Especially because I see no real solution to the energy crisis, the methods that fuel corporate pocketbooks will always be the most popular.

Then there is the very interesting reality of Asia’s aging population. Again I find myself worrying for the people of China. It is undoubtedly a tough road ahead at least if things keep to their current trend. With China’s habit of poor decisions that adherently affect their population’s livelihood.

Finally the issue of the sex ratio imbalance is a fascinating one. I have always heard that there is a larger number of females world wide, one contributing factor to that was that more men fight in wars than do women, hence an exasperation of the difference. This seems a much more uncontrollable issue than the others that have been discussed. It is hard to argue with Mother Nature, but some may and have gender based abortions to bring more women into the world. I also can’t imagine the heart ach of so many not being able to marry.

Still I think that inevitably things work themselves out. While there may be problems coming the future due to changes in demographics, problems often also present new solutions and innovations.

Unit 4 part 1 lab: fetal development

Event 1: Carnegie stage 10, which occurs after ovulation in the 21 to 23 day of a women’s cycle. This event is significant because the very beginning stages of development are starting for the eyes, ears and heart. It is a great example of how quickly that, what which was once an egg turns into a human.

Event 2: Carnegie stage 11 occurs 23-25 days after ovulation. It is the early development, which is most significant to me because it is when the building blocks for future development. Now the heart is beating, it is only the beginning; the heart is kind of practicing because the blood vessels have yet to develop. And we can now see the umbilical cord.



Event 3: Carnegie stage 16 occurs 37-42 days after ovulation. Now the brain has practically developed, specifically the part of the brain that controls the heart, breathing and muscles. The lower jaw is now visible, the hand starts to become it’s own part from the limb bud, and the thigh and foot can now be seen as a part of the leg bud.



Event 4: Carnegie stage occurs 42-44 days after ovulation. Now we’re cooking so much occurs in this stage. The heart is now separating into its four separate chambers and the diaphragm forms. The sense of smell develops in the brain, the ears are now visible and teeth begin to develop. Also the pituitary glad begins to form. It is about to decide which gender to be, and the trunk is becoming straighter preparing to become a spine.

Event 5: Carnegie stage 18 occurs 44-48 days post ovulation. The eyes develop color and the eyelid appears. Nipples are created on the chest and the kidneys start to produce urine. And the arms are ready to go.



Event 6: Carnegie stage 20 occurs 51-53 days after ovulation. Now the baby is starting to look like a human. It can now create voluntary movement, the nasal openings have formed, and the gender has been decided. The arms are full and bend at the elbow and the toes look like duck feet.

Event 7: Carnegie stage 23 occurs 56-60 days after ovulation the head is now standing up from the rest of the body. The ear is complete; the taste buds begin to form. Limbs are formed and the toes and fingers have separated. Now the tail has disappeared.



Event 8: Week 10 the baby can now be measured in inches and is about 1.25 to 1.68 inches long. The structure of the brain is complete and hair follicles start to form on the face. The baby can now make vocal sounds through the vocal cords, which have formed in the larynx. The gender organs are starting to show their gender. The nails begin to development and the skin becomes very sensitive.



Event 9: Week 12 the heart beat can now be detected. The spleen is ready to go. The gender organs are now visible and the gender of the baby can be identified. Sweet glands and hair start to grow.



Event 10: Week 16 figures prints are starting to develop. The ears are standing out from the head and are fully developed. The eyes are facing forward and the baby can now blink. I think this stage is most significant because the figure prints are developing, which are so significant in human life.



Note: I found so many stages to be significant that I did not span the whole pregnancy. I had no idea how much happened during development. I loved this assignment.

Unit 3 lab

I decided to do a model of the knee joint because I have recently started running so I have been extra interested in my knees lately. I did my best to show every part of the joint. I couldn’t figure out how to illustrate the movement.

I did the model of the knee joint including

Femur: represented my the top portion of a spoon

Patella: represented by the scoop part of the spoon

Quadriceps tendon: represented by blue rubber bands

Lateral Collateral ligament: represented by organ rubber band

Anterior cruciate ligament: yellow rubber band

Medical collateral ligament: tin foil

Meniscus: paper clip

Patella tendon: green rubber band

Tibia: Handle of the bottom spoon

Here’s the model of my knee






Here is a model of a neuron




Here is a model of a muscle cell






My main model represents the knee joint. I learned all about the different parts of the knee and what they do. How the muscles help to move my joint, and especially all the different parts.

I have to say that while I do end up learning a lot from the labs they are my least favorite activity in the course. It is not enjoyable and it is very hard to wrap my head around.

Unit 3 pt 2 lab

1. What are the three changes you observe in a muscle while it is working?

The muscle gets tighter to the tough, meaning that it is contracting. The muscle will also change length as in the experiment with the arm. And the circumference changes because when the muscle tightens it can also change shape somewhat.

2. What effect did the cold temperature have on the action of your hand muscle?

It significantly slowed down the rate at which I could contract. This happens because the cold slows down the metabolism inside the muscles cells, so the muscle has less energy to create movement with.

3. What effect did the fatigue have on the action on your hand muscles?

It made it harder to contract. It is because I am depleting the energy available to the muscle to contact, making it harder and harder.

Conclusion:

Cold slows down the metabolism inside the muscles cells, so the muscle has less energy to create movement with. Repetitive movement with one muscle or a set of muscles depletes the energy available to the muscle to contact, making it harder and harder.